Gujarati phonology
Gujarati phonology is the study of the inventory and patterns of the consonants, vowels, and prosody of the Gujarati language.
Vowels
- Sanskrit's phonemic vowel length has been lost.[1] Vowels are long when nasalized or in a final syllable.[2]
- Gujarati contrasts oral and nasal, and murmured and non-murmured vowels,[2] except for /e/ and /o/.[3]
- In absolute word-final position the higher and lower vowels of the e/ɛ and o/ɔ sets vary.[3]
- /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ developed in the 15th century. Old Gujarati split into Rajasthani and (Middle) Gujarati.[4]
- English loanwords are a source of /æ/.[5]
Consonants
- A fourth nasal phoneme is postulated for the phones [ɲ, ŋ] and the nasalization of a preceding vowel [Ṽ].[6] Before velar and palatal stops, there is variation between these; e.g. [mɑ̃ɡʋũ]~[mɑŋɡʋũ] ('ask for'), [ɦĩcko]~[ɦĩɲcko] ('swing').[7]
- Stops occurring at first members of clusters followed by consonants other than /ɾ, j, ʋ/ are unreleased; they are optionally unreleased in final position. The absence of release entails deaspiration of voiceless stops.[7]
- Intervocalically and with murmuring of vowels, the voiced aspirated stops /ɡʱ, d̪ʱ, bʱ/ have voiced spirant allophones [ɣ, ð, β]. Spirantization of non-palatal voiceless aspirates has been reported as well,[7] including /pʰ/ being usually realized as [f] in the standard dialect.[7]
- The voiced retroflex stops and the nasal /ɖʱ, ɖ, ɳ/ have flapped allophones [ɽʱ, ɽ, ɽ̃]. Intervocalically all three are flapped. /ɳ/ is unflapped before retroflex stops, and in final position varies freely between flapped and unflapped.[6] The stops are unflapped initially, geminated, and postnasally; and flapped intervocalically, finally, and before or after other consonants.[8]
- /ʋ/ has [v] and [w] as allophones.[9]
- The distribution of sibilants varies over dialects and registers.
- Some dialects only have [s], others prefer [ʃ], while another system has them non-contrasting, with [ʃ] occurring contiguous to palatal segments. Retroflex [ʂ] still appears in clusters in which it precedes another retroflex: [spəʂʈ] ('clear').[10]
- Some speakers maintain [z] as well for Persian and English borrowings. Persian's /z/'s have by and large been transposed to /dʒ/ and /dʒʱ/: /dʒin̪d̪ɡi/ ('life') and /tʃidʒʱ/ ('thing'). The same cannot be so easily said for English: /tʃiz/ ('cheese').
- Lastly, a colloquial register has [s], or both [s] and [ʃ], replaced by voiceless [h]. For educated speakers speaking this register, this replacement does not extend to Sanskrit borrowings.[7]
Phonotactical constraints include:
- /ɭ/ and /ɳ/ do not occur word-initially.[2]
- Clusters occur initially, medially, and finally. Geminates occur only medially.[2]
- Biconsonantal initial clusters beginning with stops have /ɾ/, /j/, /ʋ/, and /l/ as second members.[11] In addition to these, in loans from Sanskrit the clusters /ɡn/ and /kʃ/ may occur.
The occurrence of /ɾ/ as a second member in consonantal clusters is one of Gujarati's conservative features as a modern Indo-Aryan language. For example, languages used in Asokan inscriptions (3rd century BC) display contemporary regional variations, with words found in Gujarat's Girnar inscriptions containing clusters with /ɾ/ as the second member not having /ɾ/ in their occurrence in inscriptions elsewhere. This is maintained even to today, with Gujarati /t̪ɾ/ corresponding to Hindi /t̪/ and /t̪t̪/.[12]
- Initially, s biconsonantally clusters with /ɾ, j, ʋ, n, m/, and non-palatal voiceless stops.[11]
- Triconsonantal initial clusters include /st̪ɾ, spɾ, smɾ/ - most of which occur in borrowings.[11]
- Geminates were previously treated as long consonants, but they are better analyzed as clusters of two identical segments. Two proofs for this[6]:
- The u in geminated uccār "pronunciation" sounds more like the one in clustered udgār ('utterance') than the one in shortened ucāṭ ('anxiety').
- Geminates behave towards (that is, disallow) [ə]-deletion like clusters do.
Gemination can serve as intensification. In some adjectives and adverbs, a singular consonant before the agreement vowel can be doubled for intensification.[13] #VCũ → #VCCũ.
| big |
[moʈũ] |
[moʈʈũ] |
big |
| straight |
[sid̪ʱũ] |
[sid̪d̪ʱũ] |
straight |
| considerably |
[kʰɑsũ] |
[kʰɑssũ] |
considerably |
Stress
The matter of stress is not quite clear:
- Stress is on the first syllable except when it doesn't have /a/ and the second syllable does.[14]
- Stress is barely perceptible.[15]
- Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable of a word, however, if the penultimate vowel in a word with more than two syllables is schwa, stress falls on the preceding syllable.[16]
ə-deletion
Schwa-deletion, along with a-reduction and [ʋ]-insertion, is a phonological process at work in the combination of morphemes. It is a common feature among Indo-Aryan languages, referring to the deletion of a stem's final syllable's /ə/ before a suffix starting with a vowel.[14]
This does not apply for monosyllabic stems and consonant clusters. So, better put, #VCəC + V# → #VCCV#. It also doesn't apply when the addition is an o plural marker (see Gujarati grammar#Nouns) or e as an ergative marker (see Gujarati grammar#Postpositions).[17] It sometimes doesn't apply for e as a locative marker.
| Stem |
Suffix |
Suffixed Stem |
C/V |
Del |
Notes |
| verb root |
[keɭəʋ] |
educate |
[iʃ] |
1st person singular, future |
[keɭʋiʃ] |
will educate |
CVCəC + VC → CVCCVC |
Yes |
Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (verbal declension). |
| [səmədʒ] |
understand |
[jɑ] |
masculine plural, perfective |
[səmdʒjɑ] |
understood |
CVCəC + CV → CVCCCV |
Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a semi-vowel (verbal declension). |
| [ut̪əɾ] |
descend |
[t̪o] |
masculine singular, imperfective |
[ut̪əɾt̪o] |
descending |
VCəC + CV → VCəCCV |
No |
Suffix starting with a consonant. |
| [t̪əɾ] |
swim, float |
[ɛ] |
2nd person singular, present |
[t̪əɾɛ] |
swimming, floating |
CəC + V → CəCV |
Monosyllabic. |
| [ʋəɾɳəʋ] |
describe |
[i] |
feminine, perfective |
[ʋəɾɳəʋi] |
described |
CVCCəC + VC → CVCCəCVC |
Consonant cluster. |
| [ɑɭoʈ] |
wallow, roll |
[iʃũ] |
1st person plural, future |
[ɑɭoʈiʃũ] |
will wallow, roll |
VCoC + VCV → VCoCVCV |
Non-ə. |
| noun |
[ɑɭəs] |
laziness |
[ũ] |
adjectival marker |
[ɑɭsũ] |
lazy |
VCəC + V → VCCV |
Yes |
Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (adjectival marking). |
| [ʋəkʰət̪] |
time |
[e] |
locative marker |
[ʋəkt̪e] |
at (the) time |
CVCəC + V → CVCCV |
Sometimes yes — e as a locative marker. |
| [d̪iʋəs] |
day |
[d̪iʋəse] |
on (the) day |
CVCəC + V → CVCəCV |
No |
Sometimes no — e as a locative marker. |
| [ɾəmət̪] |
game |
[o] |
plural marker |
[ɾəmət̪o] |
games |
CVCəC + V → CVCəCV |
Plural o number marker suffix. |
| adjective |
[ɡəɾəm] |
hot |
[i] |
noun marker |
[ɡəɾmi] |
heat |
CVCəC + V → CVCCV |
Yes |
Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (noun marking). |
ɑ-reduction
A stem's final syllable's /ɑ/ will reduce to /ə/ before a suffix starting with /ɑ/. #ɑC(C) + ɑ# → #eC(C)ɑ#. This can be seen in the derivation of nouns from adjective stems, and in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.[18]
| Stem |
Suffix |
Suffixed Stem |
Red |
| cut |
[kɑp] |
[ɑ] |
[kəpɑ] |
be cut |
Passive |
Yes |
| [ɑʋ] |
[kəpɑʋ] |
cause to cut |
Causative |
cause
to cut |
[kəpɑʋ] |
[ɑ] |
[kəpɑʋɑ] |
cause to be cut |
Causative Passive |
No1 |
| [ɖɑʋ] |
[kəpɑʋɖɑʋ] |
cause to cause to cut |
Double Causative |
| use |
[ʋɑpəɾ] |
[ɑ] |
[ʋəpɾɑ]2 |
be used |
Passive |
Yes |
| long |
[lɑmb] |
[ɑi] |
[ləmbɑi] |
length |
Noun |
- It doesn't happen a second time.
- It can take place after an ə-deletion. #ɑCəC + ɑ# → #əCCɑ#.
[ʋ]-insertion
Between a stem ending in a vowel and its suffix starting with a vowel, a [ʋ] is inserted.[19] #V + V# → #VʋV#. This can be seen in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.
| Stem |
Suffix |
Suffixed Stem |
| see |
[dʒo] |
[ɑ] |
[dʒoʋɑ] |
be seen |
| sing |
[ɡɑ] |
[ɑɽ] |
[ɡəʋɑɽ] |
cause to sing |
The second example shows an ɑ-reduction as well.
ə-insertion
ə finds itself inserted between the emphatic particle /dʒ/ and consonant-terminating words it postpositions.[20]
| one |
[ek] |
[ekədʒ] |
one |
| that |
[e] |
[edʒ] |
that |
Murmur
/ɦ/ serves as a source for murmur, of which there are three rules:[21]
| Rule |
Formal1 |
Casual |
English |
| 1 |
Word-initial ɦV → V̤2 |
[ɦəʋe] |
[ə̤ʋe] |
now |
| [ɦɑɽkũ] |
[ɑ̤ɽkũ] |
bone |
| 2 |
əɦVnon-high →
V̤non-high, more open |
[səɦelũ] |
[sɛ̤lũ] |
easy |
| [bəɦoɭũ] |
[bɔ̤ɭũ] |
large |
| [d̪əɦɑɽo] |
[d̪a̤ɽo]3 |
day |
| 3 |
ə/aɦVhigh → ə̤/ɑ̤ (glide) |
[ɾəɦi] |
[ɾə̤j] |
stayed |
| [bəɦu] |
[bə̤ʋ] |
very |
- 1 Gujarati spelling reflects this mode. The script has no direct notation for murmur.
- 2 Rule 1 creates allomorphs for nouns. For example, /ɦəd̪/ ('limit') by itself can be [ə̤d̪], but can only be [ɦəd̪] in /beɦəd̪/ ('limitless').
- 3 More open.
The table below compares declensions of the verbs [kəɾʋũ] ('to do') and [kɛ̤ʋũ] ('to say'). The former follows the regular pattern of the stable root /kəɾ/ serving as a point for characteristic suffixations. The latter, on the other hand, is deviant and irregular in this respect.
| Infinitive |
Perfective |
Imperative |
1sg. Future |
| [kəɾʋũ] |
[kəɾjũ] |
[kəɾo] |
[kəɾiʃ] |
| [kɛ̤ʋũ] |
[kəɦjũ] |
[kɔ̤] |
[kə̤jʃ] |
Fortunately the [kɛ̤ʋũ] situation can be explained through murmur. If to a formal or historical root of /kəɦe/ these rules are considered then predicted, explained, and made regular is the irregularity that is [kɛ̤ʋũ] (romanized as kahevũ).
Thus below are the declensions of [kɛ̤ʋũ] /ɦ/-possessing, murmur-eliciting root /kəɦe/, this time with the application of the murmur rules on the root shown, also to which a preceding rule must be taken into account:
- 0. A final root vowel gets deleted before a suffix starting with a non-consonant.
| Rule |
Infinitive |
Perfective |
Imperative |
1sg. Future |
|
[kəɦe-ʋũ] |
[kəɦe-jũ] |
[kəɦe-o] |
[kəɦe-iʃ] |
| 0 |
|
[kəɦ-jũ] |
[kəɦ-o] |
[kəɦ-iʃ] |
| 2 |
[kɛ̤-ʋũ] |
|
[kɔ̤] |
| 3 |
|
|
|
[kə̤-jʃ] |
| → |
[kɛ̤ʋũ] |
[kəɦjũ] |
[kɔ̤] |
[kə̤jʃ] |
However in the end not all instances of /ɦ/ become murmured and not all murmur comes from instances of /ɦ/.
One other predictable source for murmur is voiced aspirated stops. A clear vowel followed by a voiced aspirated stop can vary with a pair gaining murmur and losing aspiration: #VCʱ ←→ #V̤C.
References
Bibliography
- Cardona, George; Suthar, Babu (2003), "Gujarati", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 9780415772945, http://books.google.com/?id=jPR2OlbTbdkC&pg=PA659&dq=indo-aryan+languages .
- Dave, T.N. (1931), "Notes on Gujarati Phonology", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 6 (3): 673–678, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00093174, ISSN 1356-1898, JSTOR 607202 .
- Firth, J.R. (1957), "Phonetic Observations on Gujarati", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 20 (1): 231–241, doi:10.1017/S0041977X00061802, JSTOR 610376 .
- Masica, Colin (1991), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521299442, http://books.google.com/?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=indo-aryan+languages .
- Mistry, P.J. (2003), "Gujarati", in Frawley, William, International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, 2 (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press .
- Mistry, P.J. (2001), "Gujarati", in Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl, An encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present, New England Publishing Associates .
- Mistry, P.J. (1997), "Gujarati Phonology", in Kaye, A.S, Phonologies of Asia and Africa, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns .
- Mistry, P.J. (1996), "Gujarati Writing", in Daniels; Bright, The World's Writing Systems, Oxford University Press .
- Pandit, P.B. (1961), "Historical Phonology of Gujarati Vowels", Language (Linguistic Society of America) 37 (1): 54–66, doi:10.2307/411249, JSTOR 411249 .
- Turner, Ralph Lilley (1921), "Gujarati Phonology", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 505–544 .
- Turner, Ralph Lilley (1915), "Indo-Aryan Nasals in Gujarati", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 1033–1038 .